Malays/History
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Oft neglected by laypeople worldwide outside the ambits of academic Orientalism or historical research (or even bored backpackers who chanced on the islands of Boracay or Bali as viable tourist destinations!) the Malay Archipelago has played a role in global affairs far beyond its reach across the world, hosting a vast number of trade routes and interactions which influenced cultural exchange. Its history, and that of the cultures that call this vast network of insular lands (called Nusantara by natives) home is probably no less fascinating than anywhere else on earth, especially given that it is punctuated by vast extremes: like mainland Indochina, the Malay archipelago on the one hand is known for its multicultural diversity and immense cosmopolitanism and intercultural coexistence against a backdrop of immense biodiversity and riches in terms of natural resources and trade; yet on the other hand, this seemingly ideal world too has had its own share of tales of oppression, social inequality, and political upheaval.
The Malays are the race of people who inhabit this archipelagic region, as well as the southeasternmost headland of mainland Asia known as the Malay Peninsula (what is today Peninsular Malaysia). They and their distant Polynesian cousins were great seafarers who once dominated most parts of Southeast Asia and for centuries, the Malays would build great kingdoms, huge monuments and pioneered maritime technologies, grasping a huge maritime area extending from Madagascar in the West to the Indonesian islands in the East, while the Polynesian peoples would colonise various enclaves of the Pacific Ocean and develop a culture that remains as unique and fascinating as any one other in the human world today. In this way, the people of this island chain (called Melayu, Malayo, "Malays") while not major expansionists, could still shape empires - and they still do to this very day. Three centuries of Western colonisation and the dominance of pop culture from larger continental cultures however have all but eclipsed the histories of these peoples and the roles they played in the development of human culture and civilization — something which the Warbirth project was intended to reverse. Thus, the history of the Malay peninsula and its peoples must be one which a student of history, especially global history, will ignore much to his peril.
While this history article was meant primarily to support the Warbirth project with regards to Malay factions (viz, Malays, Funan) and their Polynesian relatives, it however is also being prepared to support Swords of the Prophets too. Thus, this history will discuss the origins of the Malay peoples, as well as the two great pre-Islamic civilizations which dominated Malay history for most of their time on earth until the Middle Ages: the kingdom of Funan, as well as the mighty empire of Srivijaya, whose existence marked the apogee of pre-Islamic Malay civilization.
A Race as old as the Sea: The Malay Peoples and the Asia-Pacific Region[edit | edit source]
Before we delve into the history of the Malays, we need to make clear: who or what is a Malay, especially given the strong political sentiments that today infect questions of ethnicity and origin across the so-called "Malay" nations of Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines.
In the contemporary world, the definitions of Malay and Malayness tend to wildly differ: ethnographers and linguistic experts may have the broadest definition of Malay-ness as an Austronesian culture and language group that can comprise a vast area from Taiwan in the north to precolonial peoples living on the northernmost coasts of what is now Australia (and probably as far west as Madagascar) but ethnarchs in present-day Malaysia and Indonesia however insist on a more exclusive definition that excludes anyone and everyone outside of Nusantara itself. These definitions too are narrowed down by various political factions to exclude non-Muslims ... even if academics in the West continue to insist that the label of "Malay" be extended to anyone living within the Malay archipelago and beyond regardless of their creed on the basis that they are still Malays, solely by way of genetics, culture and linguistic similarities.
Regardless of these heavily politicised ethnographic perspectives, thus far there are three origins of the Malay peoples: the first one is that they were the descendents of one or more waves of human migrants who travelled overland from Yunnan in the present-day territory of the People's Republic of China. Another opinion states that the Malay peoples are descended mainly from migrants in Mainland Asia related to the Lapita culture on Fiji (the precursors of Polynesians), who unlike the Polynesian peoples who migrated farther south and east, most notably to what is today New Zealand (or Aotearoa), this former group instead travelled along the coast of what is today China, before making landfall across the Malay Archipelago. It is most noteworthy that the Malay and Polynesian people often exhibit physiological and linguistic similarities; most notable are the existence of cognate words that are common in both Malay and Polynesian languages. A third one, however, places their origin in the last Ice Age (c 100,000 to 25,000 years ago) as a group of nomadic humans who settled what was then a single contiguous mass, but eventually became isolated from the rest of the Old World as global warming resulted in rising sea levels.
Ultimately, understanding "Malayness" requires navigating these diverse perspectives. While political and religious interpretations often narrow the definition, an ethnographic and linguistic lens reveals a far broader and deeper history, connecting Malays across vast geographical distances and diverse cultural expressions. Whether originating from Yunnan, linked to the Lapita culture, or emerging from the dramatic geological shifts of the last Ice Age, the story of the Malay peoples is one of remarkable adaptability, migration, and the enduring power of shared cultural and linguistic heritage across a dynamic archipelago. This intricate tapestry of origins underscores the complexity and richness of identity in one of the world's most fascinating regions.
Setting the Scene: The Malay Archipelago[edit | edit source]
Comprising an area of almost 2.5 million sq km, and located at a juncture between the Pacific, the Chinese mainland, the Indian subcontinent and Australia, the Malay Archipelago along with the Philippines is one of the world's most geopolitically strategic and biodiverse regions on the planet, owing to the rise in sea levels ever since the last Ice Age, which turned a land of high peaks and mountains into an oceanic region comprising over 25,000 islands. The very existence of this archipelago, however, belies its infernal origins in the womb of the earth's core. Situated within the infamous Ring of Fire, the region is perpetually shaped by intense tectonic activity and frequent volcanism. Nevertheless, these geological forces are also the architects of immense fecundity - and this region's wealth of resources, both mineral and biological, owe much to the active tectonic forces at play here. Volcanic eruptions beget nutrient-dense ash, while often churning up rich mineral deposits from the Earth's core; indeed, the Malay Peninsula was historically renowned for its gold, earning it the moniker "Aurea Chersonesus" (Golden Peninsula) from Ptolemy of Alexandria (for Indians, this region - modern west Malaysia - was once called Suvarnabumi, "golden land").
The archipelago's equatorial tropical climate is another pivotal factor in its exceptional biodiversity. Characterised by consistently high temperatures, abundant rainfall, and high humidity, these conditions create an ideal environment for dense rainforests, mangrove swamps, and coral reefs – each teeming with life. This climate, coupled with the region's complex geography of countless islands, deep ocean trenches, and shallow seas, has fostered a myriad of microclimates and isolated habitats. This isolation, often the result of the interplaying of climate change with tectonic shifts, has been a driving force behind the astonishing rates of endemism, where species are found nowhere else on Earth: as ancient land bridges submerged, populations of plants and animals, eventually forming new species through evolution, resulting in a remarkable diversity of flora, from the towering dipterocarp trees that dominate the rainforests to the myriad of orchids and pitcher plants found in specific microhabitats.
Many coveted herbs and spices, such as cloves, nutmeg, and mace, all first evolved in the Malay Archipelago, eventually cementing its place in global trade as a critical hub in the lucrative Spice Route that connected Europe and Asia for centuries. It was the trafficking of these substance which brought immense wealth and attracted various external powers, further shaping the region's cultural landscape and so led the region also being called the "Spice Islands" by generations of European traders in the Middle Ages.
Prehistoric Polynesia and the Malay Archipelago[edit | edit source]
Regrettably, much of the pre-mediaeval history of the Malay Archipelago, like that of the wider Southeast Asian region, remains poorly documented. Historical sources are often fragmented, relying on reports from outsiders, a limited number of inscriptions, and archaeological finds. Artefacts such as sculptures, paintings, and traditional tales offer glimpses into past societies, but a comprehensive narrative is often elusive. Nevertheless, the dedicated work of historians and archaeologists over the past three centuries, through meticulous records and extensive excavations, has provided humanity with sufficient material to begin reconstructing a vivid picture of the numerous kingdoms and communities that thrived in this dynamic and captivating region, offering insights into the lives of its ancient inhabitants.
The earliest hominids to settle the Malay Archipelago were clearly diverse hunter-gatherer societies, highly adapted to their specific island and continental environments. Archaeological evidence, though sparse for such ancient times, points to sophisticated knowledge of marine resources and simple watercraft. Fossilised remains found over the past century as the Malay Archipelago and Southeast Asia became accessible to archeological study suggest that humans made their presence in this region no later than 200,000 years ago, with artefacts and human remains dated to this period and later found across Borneo and eastern Indonesia. Perhaps these people were the distant ancestors of the migrants who soon settled in the Philippines (50,000 years ago) and much later, Papua, Australia and beyond (38,000 years ago). However, the most prominent traces of modern mankind making their presence felt in the Malay Archipelago begin with the emergence of the Hoabinhian Culture (c 10000-2000BCE). While this culture (named after the site of Hoa Binh (due west of Hanoi, the capital of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, where its relics were first discovered in the 1920s CE by a French archaeological expedition) was and still is considered mostly a continental development given its spread all the way west to Myanmar and south well to the Malay Peninsula, it also managed to make its presence felt further in the Malay Archipelago: the remnants of stone tools not dissimilar to those found at Hoa Binh have been found in northern Borneo, as well as on the islands of Sumatra and Palawan further west and east, and also provide evidence of possible migration away from the Asian mainland to the archipelago well before the Metal Ages.
Dawn on the Pacific: The Rise of the Proto-Malay and Polynesian Races[edit | edit source]
Around 3000-2000BCE, Austronesian migrants from southeastern China, particularly around the Amoy Strait, joined the existing Hoabinhian culture. Possibly driven by agricultural success leading to overpopulation, these newcomers - the progenitors of the proto-Malay peoples - were skilled mariners, sailing southward and later eastward into Polynesia, bringing their advanced culture and social organization along with them. Austronesian cultures are often associated with a slew of traits, including the erection of stilt houses, tattooing, and distinctive burial practices like interment in jars or boats, a tradition that would continue into the Early Modern Period in Southeast Asia. They proved highly adaptable through their mastery of agriculture and animal husbandry. Many in Asia became proficient rice farmers, while their Polynesian relatives cultivated yams, taro, and breadfruit. Pigs, chickens, and dogs were common across most Austronesian settlements.
Key Austronesian migration waves are identified by distinct relics. The Keqiutou culture in Fujian (6000 BCE) and Dapenkeng culture in Taiwan (3500-2500BCE) are among the earliest. By the 1500s BCE, they must have expanded south and east, evidenced by the Lapita site in New Caledonia excavated in the late 1950s CE. Lapita pottery, similar to artifacts found at Nagsabaran in the Northern Philippines, suggests a link between the Cagayan Valley and Southwest Polynesia, possibly identifying Lapita people as progenitors of later Polynesian seafarers who reached Easter Island and New Zealand by the 1000s CE. The most striking link so far between the Lapita culture and its Asian origins must be in the artistic motifs of Lapita ceramics: within a millenium of their firing, these ceramics' ornamental designs would be copied and perpetuated by the Maori themselves.
Yet, perhaps for Asia, the most important of all the Austronesian cultures (as far as explaining the origins and heritage of Malay culture be concerned) must be the Sa Hyunh culture. Thought to be Austronesian due to shared cultural practices and ornament designs found as far as Thailand, the Sa Huynh culture engaged in extensive international trade and may well have been the first Austronesian culture to master ironworking, leaving its traces extending to the Mekong Delta. The (near-continuous) interactions between Taiwan, the Malay Archipelago, and littoral Indochina formed the "Sa Huynh-Kalanay Interaction Sphere" with Sa Huynh being an archaeological site in Central Vietnam (1000BCE-200CE).
OF Iron and Gold: The Sa Hyunh Culture[edit | edit source]
Sa Hyunh is famous for having yielded a rich trove of iron artifacts, gold, precious stones, and Han dynasty artifacts, and for this reason, much must be mentioned of this archaeological site, located between the present-day cities of Quy Nhon and Da Nang in Central Vietnam. First unearthed in 1909CE by a French team, the Sa Hyunh culture (as it would be known) is thought to be Austronesian, owing to discovery of evidence for Austronesian cultural practices there (most notably jar burials) but that is where the similarities with, say, the Austronesian Neolithic cultures of south China and the South Pacific end. Over the past century, work at Sa Hyunh has continued under French teams as well as Vietnamese ones, all having managed to uncover more sites associated with Sa Hyunh (through similarity of artefact design) further south into the Mekong delta.
At the site of Sa Hyunh alone (dated to 1000BCE-200CE) rich troves of artefacts have been found including iron implements (most notably the remnants of weapons, such as axes and swords) as well as ornaments made from gold and precious stones, as well as artefacts associated with Han dynasty China. This stands in stark contrast with the contemporary Dong Son culture further north in Vietnam, which still continued to rely on bronze. Yet more tantalising and far more valuable than whatever precious objects were discovered there was the provenance of some of them: chemical analysis has confirmed that some of the jade discovered at Sa Hyunh had been mined on Taiwan. In addition, the discovery of ornaments in the same design as those at Sa Hyunh as far away as Thailand has proven that the Sa Hyunh culture had a maritime presence and contacts of some sort well beyond their home in Indochina proper. Clearly, the people of the Sa Hyunh culture must have been engaged in international trade - traces of this culture have been found further afield as far south as the Mekong Delta, leading archaeologists to link the Sa Hyunh culture to the Cham kingdom that would flourish there in later centuries.
The Sa Hyunh culture thus marked a new step in the evolution of Asia's Austronesian cultures into the proto-Malay civilizations of post-Classical Asia and could be seen as the forerunners of many Malay polities in generations to come: the Austronesians at Sa Hyunh were no longer just concerned chiefly with farming and fishing, but also with trade, with all the many artefacts of foreign provenance belieing Sa Hyunh's functioning as a trade hub. So rich and sophisticated were the finds at Sa Hyunh's and so intense were its international links have often led archaeologists to surmnise that the Sa Hyunh culture could be one of the precursors, if not the only one, to the better-known mediaeval kingdom of Cham in south Vietnam.
Trawling the Trade Winds: the First Malay Empires[edit | edit source]
The Sa Huynh civilization laid foundational groundwork for the transition of proto-Malay settlements from predominantly agrarian settlements into urbanised cultural powerhouses supported extensively by maritime trade. By fostering trade networks abroad, Sa Huynh undeniably paved the way for the emergence of major proto-Malay empires. As these trade networks begun to burgeon and become more prominent, they effectively initiated the very routes that would later become known as the "Maritime Silk Roads" between East and West, playing a crucial role in fostering the initial inter-regional connections that characterized future Southeast Asian prosperity, and, as we shall see later on, a wider exchange of ideas, cultures and languages alongside goods, created the dynamic environment necessary for the rise of powerful, centralized trading entities like Funan and Srivijaya.
As with Sa Huynh, many proto-Malay city-states, often confined to one or two cities, must have made their regional debut by supplying passing mariners with food and water. Perhaps, as trade became more successful, and demand for food, water and a place to shelter became greater, these settlements must soon have evolved into entrepôt centers, facilitating trade between Eastern and Western maritime Asia. What started as informal visits intensified, fueled by existing trade and cultural exchange infrastructure. This generated snowballing gains from resource exploitation and trade, transforming the region's cultural and economic landscape through maritime connectivity. Prospering cities became collection centers for local products like forest goods and minerals (notably gold and tin ore from the Malay Peninsula), then selling them elsewhere. Successful city-states solidified their power by exacting tribute, a dynamic especially prominent in the 6th and 7th centuries CE around the Straits of Malacca.
Archaeological finds — like Roman carnelian intaglios in Krabi, Thailand, or Indian rouletted ware and glass beads on Bali — attest to the growing reach and complexity of Southeast Asian maritime trade since Sa Huynh's era. Yet it would not be just trinkets that India would leave behind in the Malay Archipelago and Southeast Asia. Nearly two millennia of continuous trade between the Archipelago and India led to frequent intermarriage (particularly involving Tamils and Gujaratis) along the peninsula's west coast. Malay culture, aligning with Indochina, thus fell under strong Hindu influence, remaining largely Hinduized until widespread conversion to Islam between the 13th and 16th centuries CE. While predominantly Muslim today, many Malays (especially in Malaysia and Indonesia) still retain ancient animistic beliefs in nature spirits and often seek the services of medicine men or shamans (bomoh, pawang, or dukun) for dealing with ailments despite modern medicine.
A Pattern for All Seasons: The Mandala of Funan[edit | edit source]
The case of Funan serves as an excellent case study for the trends mentioned previously of growing trade networks and tributary systems developed along lines of Hinduised ideas of politics and kingship.
From the first to the seventh centuries CE, The maritime smaller city-states developing in littoral Indochina and further south came to be dominated by the Kingdom of Funan. Funan, probably the first great Southeast Asian empire, apparently started out as a simple pirate base at Óc Eo, strategically situated on the southwest coast of Vietnam today between the Mekong delta and the main east-west maritime trade routes. Óc Eo then developed as the main trading port in the Gulf of Thailand region, a central emporium for goods and traders from China, the Malay world and the Indian Ocean. Archaeological excavations at Óc Eo have unearthed objects there from as far away as Rome, India, China and Japan, and it is now thought that it was the site of the city of Cattigara mentioned by the Egyptian geographer Ptolemy of Alexandria.
Aside from Western sources, a few existing Chinese, Indian and Arab writings leave us fleeting descriptions of these smaller central Malay Peninsula kingdoms during this period of Funanese domination from roughly the first to the end of the seventh century. According to Indian legend, Funan became a more civilised place when an Indian leader of high birth sailed east, married a Funanese princess and became king. He persuaded the Funanese that supplying and trading with passing ships would be more profitable in the longer term than attacking and plundering them. Funan developed a powerful navy and army and attempted to control all trade around the Gulf of Thailand including the important trans-peninsular portage routes in the Malay Peninsula. As sensational and entertaining as this account may be as a yarn (and thus a veritable source for historical fiction novels) could well be possibly true: it was echoed later by Tang era chroniclers in China has having taken place in the 4th century CE.
An early Chinese account tells us that the Funanese were a “dark and curly haired people who went naked." Kangtai and Zhuying, two third-century Chinese emissaries to Funan, noted the wealth of the Funanese and tell us, “They live in walled villages, palaces and houses … [the people] go about naked and barefoot. Their nature is simple and they are not inclined towards thievery… they undertake agriculture… Customs and taxes are paid in gold, silver, pearls and perfumes… there are books and depositories of archives and other things.”
A third-century Chinese report tells of a powerful Funanese king called Fan Chu Man who, “by the might of his arms, attacked and subdued neighboring kingdoms and all admitted themselves his vassals … He had great ships constructed in which he crossed over the sea [Gulf of Thailand] and attacked and subdued more than ten kingdoms and expanded his kingdom in all directions for some 6,000 li” By 503CE, the Chinese officially recognised the King of Funan as the leader of all Nanyang (the southern seas) and conferred upon him the title “General of the Pacified south”.
Tun Sun seems to have been the early Chinese name for the whole central Malay Peninsula under Funanese control. It was mentioned that this kingdom was centered on the Tapi River which empties into the sea at Surat Thani and that it controlled several of the main central trans-peninsular trade routes. One third-century Chinese script tells us that Tun Sun was “An ocean stepping stone, situated on a precipitous coast 3,000 li south of Funan … it has five kings, all vassals of Funan … On the east, the kingdom was in communication with Tongking (South China), on the west, with India and Parthia (Persia).”
Another third-century Chinese source, the Taiping Yulan chronicle notes, “Tun Sun was originally an independent kingdom but King Fan Man [of Funan] subdued it.” A fifth-century Chinese chronicle, the “Fu-Nan Chi” tells us:
- “Ton-sun is a dependency of Funan. In the country there are five hundred families of ‘Hun’ [merchants?] from India, two hundred ‘fo-te’ [Buddhists?] and more than a thousand Indian Brahmins. The people of Tun sun practice their doctrine and give them their daughters in marriage; consequently many of the Brahmins do not leave the place. They do nothing but study the sacred canon, bathe themselves with scent and flowers and practice piety by day and night.”
Clearly these Brahmins, who in India would have been celibate, were enjoying the comparatively more relaxed mores and lifestyle in Suvarnabhumi, which also calls into question their authenticity. The same chronicle also states: “Tunsun is situated across the Gulf of Siam 3,000 li southwards of Funan. Among the inhabitants are many with white complexions.” It is unclear whether this means Malays, Persians, Romans or simply rich traders who did not have to work in the fields or on ships. The kingdom of Tun Sun is, rather strangely, never mentioned in Chinese writings after the eighth century, probably because Chinese travelers and officials got to know the peninsula better and began to identify the individual kingdoms there after they had become independent of Funan’s overlordship and several of them began to send their own embassies and trade missions north to China.
By the late seventh century, however, Funan was attacked and overrun by the Kingdom of Chenla, a large Khmer agricultural kingdom to its north. Chenla was a more agricultural and less maritime kingdom and it was ultimately unable to maintain the control that Funan had maintained over the trans-peninsular trade routes and the local kingdoms that had grown up around them.
By 627 CE, the mandala of Funan as an economic and imperial power was as good as a spent force. Chinese accounts speak of how the Khmer-dominated kingdom of Chenla annexed parts of Funan before penultimately subjugating it, while across the sea, Funan's possessions were now led by a new kingdom - the Javanese kingdom of Sailendra, who claimed descent from the kings of Funan. However, none of these would dominate Southeast Asia in the early Middle Ages so intensely as did Sailendra's partner and liege lord — the empire of Srivijaya.
The Lords of Spice and Gold: The Srivijaya empire[edit | edit source]
The Srivijaya kingdom was based in the district now known as Palembang in Sumatra and could exert influence across Indonesia, Peninsular Malaysia and the Philippines. Srivijaya was heavily influenced by Indian culture, first by Hindu culture and then followed by Buddhism. The Srivijaya kings ruled the Malay archipelago through trade, diplomacy and conquest from the 7th to the 9th century, and like the Habsburgs almost a thousand years later and six thousand miles further west, utilised royal exogamous marriages to expand peacefully. Although the core of Srivijaya was essentially the southern tip of Sumatra, at its zenith the Srivijayan mandala or imperium stretched well across the western Malay archipelago, and the kings had both Javanese and Palembang blood through royal intermarriages.
Based on graffiti on a stone found at Kedukan Bukit (southern Sumatra), the kingdom of Srivijaya was thought to have been founded in 683 CE by Dapunta Hyang Sri Jayanasa, who led a host of as many as 20,000 men from Minanga Tamwan (central Sumatra). Other inscriptions discovered at Kota Kapur on Bangka Island (dated 686 CE), Karang Birahi at Jambi Hulu (686 CE) dan Palas Pasemah south of Lampung (southernmost Sumatra) all recount the same event. An interpretation of these inscriptions suggest that it was indeed Jayanasa who established the kingdom of Srivijaya after having vanquished his rivals at Jambi, Palembang, south Lampung and Bangka Island. Even as the actual background of Jayanasa and even the actual location of Minanga Tamwan is still debated, some authorities hypothesise that the vast army brought by Jayanasa on his campaign may have been recruited from the Peninsula of Malaya.
Srivijaya expanded further first by seizing control of western Java toward the end of the 7th century CE. The Kota Kapur inscription (dated 549 -686 CE) makes note of a curse invoked by the king of Srivijaya upon a small kingdom in the same area shortly before the conquest took place. This event appeared to have taken place almost concurrently with the decline of the kingdoms of Tarumanagara and Kalingga in Western Java. Military might was not the only source of Srivijaya's power and claim to fame - in trade and diplomacy, we are told that Srivijaya was immensely rich, and that the kingdom also corresponded with Muslim Arabia as well as the Tang and Song rulers of China (as well as the petty kingdoms of Min and South Han during the bloody interregnum that saw power pass from the Tang to the Song). An Arab writer, Ibn Ruslah, claimed that "there was not a nation that was as strong nor as rich as Srivijaya", while the Song statesman Zhao Rukuo (also called Chou Ju-Qua) noted that Srivijaya's influence reached far and wide across southeast Asia, encompassing as many as fifteen different subsidiary kingdoms and reaching even the northernmost borders of the former Funanese polity.
But of all the states and kingdoms that Srivijaya had contact with, perhaps the most important one was closest to home. This one was Sailendra, a kingdom dominating Mataram in Central Java, and we are told of accounts of dynastic marriages between Sailendra and Srivijaya. Building vast Buddhist monuments wasn't the only thing the Buddhist dynasts of Sailendra dealt with: from its seat in Central Java, the kingdom could also exert its influence into the sea all the way to Bali, which must havesuited its Srivijayan overlords well enough — the sons of Jayanasa were concerned with its closest rivals who were chiefly located to the east in eastern Java and beyond. Over time, Srivijaya became one of the most important centres of Mahayana Buddhism, and also spread Malay culture throughout Sumatra, the Malay Peninsula, and West Borneo. War and conquest aside, royal marriages with other nations seemed to have been common policy for maintaining Srivijaya influence. We are given several instances of this happening: Dapunta Hyang, who ruled since 664 CE, married the second daughter of king Linggawarman of the Tarumanagara Kingdom named Sobakancana, from whom descended the next Srivijaya king: Dharma Setu. So the king of Srivijaya, Dharma Setu was of dual Sundanese and Palembang descent. Later, his daughter, Dewi Tara was later married to Samaratungga, king of Sailendra and the builder of the Borobudur temple complex. AIn time their son Bala Putra Dewa would become king of Srivijaya (r 833-856 CE).
But from the 730s CE onward, however, Srivijaya seemed to have went into decline. What sources exist state that in 732CE, the Hindu Sanjayas, another kingdom ruling in the Mataram region, defeated Srivijaya and even captured the Srivijayan king, Rudra Wikraman. From that point on, it is alleged, the kings of Srivijaya would begin to lose their influence over most of their kingdom and their vassals - a process which by the 11th century must have seen unstoppable. In 1017, 1025, and 1068CE, Srivijaya was invaded by the Chola kings of the Cholamandala kingdom in India, resulting in the destruction of the empire's trade routes. In the second Chola incursion in 1025CE, king Sri Sanggramawidjaja Tungadewa was captured. Although Chola dominance of the Malay Archipelago was brief, their attacks led to Srivijaya losing influence and eventually territory. In 1088CE, the Malay kingdom of Jambi, which was formerly under the auspices of Srivijaya made Srivijaya its subject. Much later, the Singhasari kingdom, based in eastern Java, launched several campaigns culminating in the disappearance of what remains of Srivijaya influence south of the Java Sea by 1288CE, before finally succumbing to the Majapahit kingdom - the last of the great pre-Islamic empires of the Malay Archipelago - which conquered all that was left by 1293CE.
However, while the Srivijaya kingdom has disappeared, the line of its rulers would allegedly survive and in time rule a new empire of their own. As Srivijaya declined, Islam slowly entered Sumatra through Aceh which converted following contacts with Arab and Indian traders. In 1414CE, the last prince of Srivijaya, Parameswara, converted to Islam and migrated to the Malay Peninsula where he would found the Sultanate of Melaka which in turn dominated the Straits of Malacca for most of the 15th century CE.
Today, the kings of the Malaysian state of Perak are themselves descendents of Parameswara. If a tenable link between Srivijaya and Parameswara were to be established, it would prove that the sultan of Perak can claim to be heir to an illustrious line of rulers who have dominated Southeast Asia for more than a thousand years.
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